The Purusha Suktam of the Rig Veda (10.90) is a profound hymn that envisions the Virat Purusha, the Cosmic Being, as the source of all creation, uniting material and spiritual realms in a cosmic tapestry. This cornerstone of Sanatana Dharma, also known as Hindutva, articulates the origin of the four varnas—Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Śūdras—from Purusha’s body, symbolising their interdependent roles in upholding dharma.

The Manu Smriti, a pivotal text of Hindutva, elaborates on these roles but faces criticism for allegedly degrading Śūdras by confining them to servitude.

Such interpretations, however, misread the text, ignoring its historical context, philosophical depth, and the issue of interpolations.

Far from demeaning Śūdras, the Manu Smriti positions them as the backbone of society, akin to the legs of Purusha, essential for stability and mobility.

This article explores Śūdras’ duties as prescribed in the Manu Smriti, challenges colonial and modern misinterpretations, and highlights their contributions to Hindu civilisation’s prosperity and resilience. By examining textual evidence, historical examples, and the varna system’s sociological brilliance, we argue that Śūdras were not degraded but celebrated as producers and protectors.

We urge readers to approach history with nuance, learning from its virtues and flaws rather than judging it through modern, often anti-Hindu, lenses, to reclaim the Manu Smriti’s vision of a harmonious, dharmic society.

Caveat: Hindutva, coined by Chandranath Basu in 1892 for his eponymous book, encapsulates the essence of Sanatana Dharma, serving as its authentic indigenous name.

Following Basu’s vision, we reject "Hinduism," a British-constructed term blending Sanskrit and English morphemes, and adopt Hindutva instead. We also reject Vinayak Savarkar’s 1923 misappropriation of Hindutva for his politico-nationalistic ideology. Thus, we use Hindutva as a synonym for Sanatana Dharma, as originally intended by Basu.

Varna system: Origins and philosophical foundations:

The Manu Smriti does not create the varna system but codifies duties within a framework rooted in Vedic texts. The Purusha Suktam (10.90.12) offers the earliest reference to the varnas’ origin:

Brāhmano’sya mukhamāsīd bāhū rājanyah krtah |

Ūrū tadasya yadvaiśyah padbhyām śūdro’jāyata ||

This metaphor portrays Brahmins (mouth), Kshatriyas (arms), Vaishyas (thighs), and Śūdras (feet) as integral parts of Purusha, emphasising their interdependence in sustaining cosmic order. The Bhagavad Gita (4.13) further clarifies:

Cāturvarayam mayā srstam gunakarmavibhāgaśah

Tasya kartāramapi mām viddhyakartāramavyayam ||

Lord Krishna explains that varnas are based on guna (qualities) and karma (actions), not birth, ensuring a functional classification for societal harmony. The Manu Smriti (1.31) reaffirms this divine origin, tasked by sages (MS 1.2) to detail varna duties:

Bhagavan sarvavarnānām yathāvadanupūrvaśah |

Antaraprabhavānām ca dharmānno vaktumarhasi ||

Thus, the Manu Smriti serves as subordinate legislation, akin to modern rules implementing parliamentary laws, to ensure societal stability. The Purusha Suktam’s depiction of Śūdras as feet underscores their foundational role—without them, society would be immobile, akin to a body without legs. This metaphor, far from demeaning, highlights their critical contribution to a dynamic, self-sustaining society. The varna system’s philosophical underpinning lies in its recognition of diversity within unity, aligning with Hindutva’s pluralistic ethos, as seen in shruti texts like the Vedas and Upanishads, which emphasise universal truths without mandates for oppression.

Śūdras’ duties: Wealth creators, not servants:

The Manu Smriti (1.91) assigns Śūdras the duty of “service” (śuśrūsā) to other varnas without resentment:

Ekameva tu śūdrasya prabhuh karma samādiśat |

Etesāmeva varnānām śuśrūsāmanasūyayā ||

Critics often interpret this literally, portraying Śūdras as servants or slaves, a view that distorts Manu’s intent and undermines Hindu civilisation’s complexity. With Śūdras historically comprising over 50% of the population, it is implausible that a civilisation renowned for its advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and art thrived by relegating half its people to menial roles. Textual and historical evidence refutes this servitude narrative.

Manu’s śuśrūsā refers to Śūdras’ role as producers of food, goods, and services, forming the economic backbone of society. This mirrors the āśrama dharma (stages of life), where the householder (grihastha) sustains other stages—brahmacharya, vānaprastha, and sannyāsa.

Similarly, as wealth creators, Śūdras supported Brahmins in their priestly and scholarly duties, Kshatriyas in governance and protection through wealth-generated resources, and Vaishyas in trading Śūdra-produced goods, ensuring economic vitality.

Without Śūdra output, Vaishyas would lack tradeable goods, Kshatriyas would lack revenue, and Brahmins could not sustain Vedic traditions.

The directive to serve anasūyayā (without resentment) emphasises a cooperative spirit, recognising the dignity of their role. This interpretation aligns with the Purusha Suktam’s metaphor: just as a body requires legs for mobility, society relies on Śūdras for vitality.

A person is considered healthy only when all bodily organs and limbs work harmoniously. An individual might have sharp intellect and powerful arms, but without functional legs, they would lack mobility, rendering them neither truly healthy nor vigorous, as limited movement would impede their pursuits. The symbolic imagery in the Rig Veda’s Purusha Suktam, which depicts Śūdras emerging from the feet of the Purusha (the Cosmic Creator), highlights their essential role in society. Without Śūdras, society would lose its capacity for self-sufficiency and dynamism, resembling a static, lifeless entity. Far from belittling Śūdras, this metaphor underscores their vital contribution to the energy and stability of the social order.

Each civilisation develops its unique organisational structure, and the varna (or caste) system embodies the Hindu framework, intricately linked with spiritual and ethical values. This brilliantly designed system, refined over thousands of years, enabled division of labour, safeguarded collective knowledge, and facilitated the transmission of skills across generations. It fostered order, stability, decentralisation, and community empowerment, while ensuring economic opportunities for all—crucial factors in a civilisation’s lasting success.

The varna system afforded considerable independence to communities, nurturing a sense of dignity in one’s occupational role (varna dharma), such that even rulers were advised against meddling in community affairs unless they jeopardised social harmony or state governance.

Historical records affirm that Śūdras were far more than subservient labourers; they were central to Hindu civilisation’s achievements. The global renown of Hindu culture rested on the agricultural abundance and artisanal expertise of Śūdra farmers and craftsmen. Exquisite temple carvings, sophisticated metalwork, delicate textiles, jewellery, architectural marvels, and weaponry reflect the ingenuity and craftsmanship of Śūdra artisans, whose contributions underpinned the civilisation’s economic and cultural prosperity.

Interpolations: Distorting the original text:

A significant challenge in interpreting the Manu Smriti is the presence of interpolations. Dr. Surendra Kumar’s research reveals that of the text’s 2,685 verses, 1,471 (over 55 per cent) are interpolated, leaving only 1,214 as original.

These interpolations, introduced by later scribes, often reflect the biases or agendas of their time, such as reinforcing hierarchical interpretations of the varna system.

For example, verses prescribing harsh punishments or restrictive rules for Śūdras (e.g., MS 8.279–280, which prohibit Śūdras from certain rituals) are often identified as interpolations because they contradict the text’s broader emphasis on societal harmony and interdependence.

The issue of interpolations is not unique to the Manu Smriti. Other ancient texts, such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, also contain later additions. In the case of the Manu Smriti, interpolations likely emerged during periods of social change, such as the post-Gupta era (circa 6th–12th centuries CE), when caste hierarchies developed under the influence of feudalism and external invasions. These interpolations often exaggerated the subservience of Śūdras, overshadowing the original intent of the text.

Despite these interpolations, the Manu Smriti contains verses that affirm the dignity of Śūdras.

For instance, verses 8.337–338 prescribe lighter punishments for Śūdras compared to other varnas in cases of theft: eightfold for Śūdras, sixteen-fold for Vaishyas, thirty-two-fold for Kshatriyas, and sixty-four- or hundred-fold for Brahmins.

This gradation reflects recognition of the varying responsibilities and social roles of each varna. Śūdras, as producers, were treated with leniency, acknowledging their critical role in sustaining society. This leniency undermines the narrative of degradation and suggests a system designed to protect the most numerous and economically vital varna, reflecting Manu’s recognition of Śūdras as annadatas (food providers), wealth creators, and sustainers of Hindu civilisation, working in harmony with Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas to protect Hindu geography and culture. (The second and concluding part will be published in the Monday edition of The Hans India).

(The writer is a retired IPS officer, and a former Director, CBI. Views are personal)